Historically, Native peoples have been forced to adapt themselves to
Western academic paradigms if they wish to become a success in the
mainstream culture. In 1892, Captain Richard Pratt wrote “Kill the
Indian in him, and save the man” in relation to the education of Native
peoples of the United States and this hardened and Eurocentric
disposition of education has been applied to the majority of Native
education programs between then and now (
http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/4929/).
However, in the last few decades, a great increase has been seen in
programs that support student success through a reinfusion of Native
culture and language. Those outside the field are often without a
background or understanding of those topics central to Native American
educational curriculum or even the wide variety of programs that exist
at the k-12 and university level to support academically, socially and
culturally Native Students. The integration of native languages and
tribal-specific spiritual/cultural contexts with traditionally Western
academic disciplines in both contemporary k-12 and university/college
level Native American education creates the necessary foundations and
support that Native American students need to both be successful in
their lives within Western cultural norms while remaining grounded in
their culture and gaining a stronger connection with their ancestors and
cultural practices.
The methodology used in these
educational settings differs perforce because of the relative ages and
levels of experience and maturity of the students involved. It is a
complicated process to bring Native language and culture into the
academy where English and Eurocentric ideals have reigned supreme for
centuries, however many contemporary programs are doing just that and
therefore promoting the personal, professional and academic success of
their students. “Many schools around the country are now involved in the
teaching of local endangered languages. There are three main types of
school-based language programs: teaching an endangered language as a
subject (like a foreign language) {which is the most common}, bilingual
education {a better tool for language maintenance rather than
revitalization as well as a hot political issue}, and full-scale
immersion…Language and culture are closely intertwined.. One important
reason many people want to learn their ancestral language is that they
want to regain access to traditional cultural practices and traditional
values. IT is often said that language is the key to and the heart of
culture.” (Hinton, 2001a, 7-9). This research will explore some of the
programs that are existent today, specifically exploring pedagogical
theory, methodology and keys to a successful program both on the
Reservation and in other settings. They specifically provide students
with the pedagogical and philosophical tools to more effectively
function in an increasingly multi-cultural and global society. Locust
(1988) writes “the dominant culture’s lack of understanding of the
tribal concept that the unity of a group is binding also leads to
discrimination against Indian people…Belief systems are the framework
upon which all cultures and societies function. It is the bond that
holds civilizations together, and it is the small voice inside each of
us that urges us to be true to what we have been taught…We remain
positive that, once understanding has been established between tribal
cultures and educational systems, discrimination will cease.” (p.
19-20). Deyhle (1995) found that Navajo students felt conflicted about
the role of education and that it could not be integrated with
traditional ceremonial/religious practices nor filial responsibilities.
In the last few decades, a great increase has been seen in programs
that support student success through a reinfusion of Native culture and
language. While pioneering programs such as those at Rough Rock and Fort
Defiance existed as an offshoot of the Red Power and self-determination
movement it wasn’t until the last couple decades where there was a
significant change in the dominant system’s interaction with Native
Education. Arnold (2001) cites the major influence of the Native
American Languages Act of 1990, in which “Provisions of the act were
intended to recognize the right of tribes to use their languages as a
medium of instruction, to encourage state and local education
authorities to implement the act by including Native American languages
in their curricula, to grant appropriate credit (including substitution
of a Native American language for a foreign language) and to allow
exceptions to teacher certification requirements for Native American
Language teachers.” (p.45) This legal precedent opened the door to
significant possibility for change in the field of Native American
education.
Those outside the field are often without a background
or understanding of those topics central to Native American educational
curriculum or even the wide variety of programs that exist at the k-12
and university level to support academically, socially and culturally
Native Students. The integration of native languages and tribal-specific
spiritual/cultural contexts with traditionally Western academic
disciplines in both contemporary k-12 and university/college level
Native American education creates the necessary foundations and support
that Native American students need to both be successful in their lives
within Western cultural norms while remaining grounded in their culture
and gaining a stronger connection with their ancestors and cultural
practices, although the methodology used in these educational settings
differs perforce because of the relative ages and levels of experience
and maturity of the students involved. It is a complicated process to
bring in Native language and culture into the academy where English and
Eurocentric ideals have reigned supreme for centuries, however many
contemporary programs are doing just that and therefore promoting the
personal, professional and academic success of their students. This
research will explore some of the programs that are existent today
specifically exploring pedagogical theory, methodology and keys to a
successful program both on the Reservation and in other settings. This
bibliographic essay is the beginning of a journey in exploring
contemporary Native American Education programs that establish the new
triumvirate of Native student success: language, culture/spirituality
and academics. Today, the majority of Native peoples live off the
reservation. However, this essay will look at educational programs both
on and off the reservation to ensure that a broad spectrum of
contemporary Native Education programs will be explored.
In previous decades, my thesis would have been much harder to write as
most of the resources focused on forcing Native students into a
traditional Euro-American ethnocentric educational model. Gregory Cajete
(1994) is a pioneer in the field of integrating indigenous science,
methodologies and beliefs with fields traditionally considered Western
and he wrote that "In its most natural dimension, all true education is
transformative and Nature centered." This is the key to creating Native
Education programs, obtaining this natural dimension. Cajete’s
Look to the Mountain: An Ecology of Indigenous Education
is truly a seminal text in this field. Ambler (1997) writes “The
concept of American Indian cultural curriculum emerged not out of
educational fads or efforts to be politically correct. It was inspired
by the failure of educational institutions to successfully educate
American Indian children. Alarming dropout statistics demonstrate the
mainstream educational system’s inability by academic standards to
educate Indian people. Often those who succeed in mainstream
institutions are considered failures by their own cultural standards.”
(pp.8) Here in 1997, Ambler is arguing for the necessity and purpose of
tribal colleges to educate Native students and the ways in which Indian
people must prioritize their funding, curriculum and community-impact.
Education for Native people by Native people and reflecting Native
values is key to student success. “Cultural curriculum helps students
not only survive, but thrive.” (Ambler, 10). Huffman (2010) gives a
significant look at the theories upon which Native education are based,
specifically CBE (Culturally-Based Education) and transculturation
theory. Transculturation theory is specific to Native education as it is
not applied to other ethnic groups and was specifically developed to
explain the relationships between indigenous and immigrant populations
in the Americas. Deloria and Wildcat (2001) also give significant
insight into the theoretical basis of both Western education as well as
the holistic understandings that underpin most Native belief systems and
how these critical indigenous understanding are of aid to Native
students studying the sciences, mathematics, etc. Deloria and Wildcat
(2001) argue for a fundamental return to tribal teaching models and
abandoning the Western style educational models that are a failure for
teaching Native youth.
Native Languages are being
integrated throughout the US at both the k-12 and University level.
Pre-kindergarten students learn Navajo in reservation head-start
programs and college students on Pine Ridge major in Lakota
culture/history. A Blackfoot, Kipp (2000) advocates cooperative,
language-based, culturally-informed education. Kipp links language and
identity especially for children. Suina (2000) brings together
spirituality, symbolism and education in order to create a model that
reflects the linguistic and cultural character of Native people. The
model Suina describes is tribally specific to his own people: the
Conchiti Pueblo. It is important to note that most, if not all
successful immersion programs and schools, are tribally-specific. There
is no such thing as a pan-Indian k-12.
Schools require a specific
cultural context in order to connect with the students. Reyhner (2006)
is a leader in Navajo-language/culture-based education. This text looks
at the assimilation-based education history of Native American
Education, then exploring contemporary programs such as the Rough Rock
Demonstration School on the Navajo Reservation which emerged in the
1960s and had a great deal of administrative problems, especially
financial. Rock Point Community School, Navajo Community College, the
now defunct D-Q University and Oglala Lakota College are also looked at.
Programs that offer dual-language immersion and ESL programs on the
reservation are analyzed. Reyhner establishes the increased success of
experiential learning, group-leadership and motivation within Native
American- specifically Navajo communities. Lomawaima and McCarty (2006)
also catalog the rise of schools controlled by the tribal-groups. The
rise of bilingual/bicultural education is demonstrated with Rough Rock,
Rock Point (both Navajo) and Peach Springs (Hualapai) which all emerged
in the height of the red power movement, the latter two experienced
long-term academic success for their students: a key point of which was
the development of tribal-language materials and bilingual
methodologies. In addition, Lomawaima and McCarty (2006) state
“Hawaiian-language immersion may be the most dramatic success story in
the ‘new American revolution’ to date. It is a model that has been
emulated by many indigenous communities in order to reclaim and restore
their tribal languages.” (p. 138).Warner (2001) significantly explains
the rise of the Hawaiian language/culture-based preschool programs that
eventually led to dual Hawaiian/English immersion programs as well as
Anuenue, a pre-k-12th grade immersion school. Anuenue’s mission
statement is “To empower children by providing them a quality education
in both Hawaiian and English based on Hawaiian culture and history to
enable them to seek knowledge and excellence and contribute to their
community and their lāhui.”(
http://www.anuenue.org/keena.html)
. Keahi (2000) prioritizes indigenous children’s self-esteem which she
articulates is increased through cultural and language immersion. The
University of Hawaii now houses a Hawaiian language college, offering
the “first graduate degree for an indigenous language anywhere in the
nation.” (p.59). This program also offers Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.d.)
in Hawaiian and Indigenous Language and Cultural Revitalization. “The
mission of the Ph.D. program in Hawaiian and Indigenous Language and
Culture Revitalization is to train well rounded Hawaiian and other
indigenous scholars who are prepared to take leadership roles within
their communities in indigenous language and culture revitalization.” (
http://www.olelo.hawaii.edu/khuok/laeula.php).
Silva (2000) catalogs the rise of interest in Hawaiian language and
culture from the 1970s to today, establishing the increase interest and
community value placed on Hawaiian culture. Hawai’i is clearly a leader
in indigenous education.
Culturally-based education is not limited
to Hawai’i; nor are its successes. “The Circle of Life School was
created in 1978 when twelve Ojibwe students walked out of the Waubun
High School, about ten miles away, because of the conflict they were
experiencing at the public school. The walkout forced their tribal
leaders to grapple with educational responsibility. Their first school
was a small two-room shack with nothing more than a barrel stove, table,
stumps for chairs, and baloney sandwiches, according to Denise
(Bellecourte) Levy, a leader of the twelve who walked out. The Waubun
coordinator walked out with them and became their first teacher. The
tribal council created its own school to "provide a
quality, culturally-based education that emphasizes the academic,
emotional, social, and spiritual development...in a safe and supportive
environment." Levy was the first graduate of the school, enrolled at
Bemidji State University, and graduated with a double degree in criminal
justice and Indian studies. In recent years, the school has met the
rigorous performance goals and indicators of success required by the No
Child Left Behind Act. Since 2001, students have made consistent annual
improvements at the proficient and advanced levels in reading, math, and
attendance.” (Germaine, 2005). Clearly there is a link between the
integration of tribal culture and the success of native students.
“Tohatchi Elementary School and two Zuni schools, Dowa Yalanne
Elementary and Zuni High, were honored … for their strong bilingual
programs, according to a release from New Mexico Secretary of
Education Veronica C. Garcia. They are among 32 public schools in which
bilingual education has helped English language learner students move
toward proficiency in English and to make academic progress.” (Tohatchi,
2010)
Pedagogy and Theoretical Methodology meet Practical Application
Paolo Friere’s Pedagogy of the Oppressed:
Does Friere really play a role or is the Contemporary Native Education
movement more of an outgrowth of the Red Power movement of the 60s and
70s? It is clear that there is a different type of understanding when we
are looking at tribally-specific pedagogy and curricula planning.
Friere has been applied to a variety of groups and cultural minorities
however. Indigenous pedagogy is a specific result of conquest and
cultural genocide. It is meaningful in tribal contexts.
Language acquisition theory is an important thing when discussing
bilingual education. The critical terminology of course is L1 – primary
or first language a student learns and L2 – second or secondary language
a student learns. L2’s tend to be English
“The positive view
of L1 influences on L2 is represented by the theory of Common Underlying
Proficiency (CUP). Cummins (1983) proposes a "dual-iceberg" analogy to
describe the transfer of bilingual learners' first language to the
second language. In Cummin's model, Ll and L2 proficiencies overlap with
the common sector, which is below the "surface". In the separate
sectors we find the surface features of the respective linguistic
structures of Ll and L2. As the double iceberg indicates, superficially,
Ll and L2 are separated proficiencies, but in essence, they overlap and
share certain abstract universal principles and constraints common to
all natural languages. L2 learners express their language proficiency in
two different modes, i.e. the native language and the second language,
but skills, knowledge and concepts developed in Ll can be easily
transferable to L2. The CUP model claims that there is an underlying
cognitive/academic proficiency that is common across languages, which
follows the transfer of literacy-related skills across languages.” (Yan,
2010)
L1/L2 Bilingual Education Theory gives Native
language instruction a supportable backbone. Academic development must
continue in a child’s first language if the desire is high ability,
comprehension and academic skill in their second language. Although,
some Native children are sent to school speaking only English due to
parental lack of Native language fluency.
Many
schools, especially those on reservations or near them, offer tribal
languages as a subject in the school, just like English or mathematics.
Some schools are more daring and offer tribal language immersion
programs wherein all the subjects are taught in a student’s tribal
language.
As evidenced by the strong advocacy for Dine language
and culture in the schools, there currently is a Navajo language Head
Start and immersion at Eva B. Stokely Elementary where kindergarteners
began their first immersion program in Fall 2010.
(
http://www.linguapax.org/fr/nouvelles/2011/02/11/district-offers-first-navajo-immersion-program)
As one of the larger reservations, the Navajo have a strong sense of
culture and a value on language. In addition, the Navajo have managed to
integrate their culture into contemporary cultural contexts, for
example the Miss Navajo Competition (
http://www.missnavajocouncil.org/history/pageanthistory.htm)
as well as having traditional Navajo family portrayed fairly well on Morgan Spurlock’s 30 Days television show
(year). Despite
the decreased in funding in public and thus Native education since the
1990s (Malott, 2008), Dine language and culture in the schools is
growing and expanding.
Significant work has been done in regards to Arapaho language revitalization, particularly by Dr. Neyooxet Greymorning
. “ The
teacher-training workshop will guide language instructors through a
method called Accelerated Second Language Acquisition©™. This method has
broad application as a tool for language instruction across diverse
languages and age groups. The applicability of this method for
application and instruction for an unlimited number of languages is
seamless. Participants will receive training in its use through hands on
demonstrations, step-by-step explanations that will guide participants
in how to use this approach, and with video footage of work with
children, and adult college classes. Dr. Greymorning developed this
approach to specifically bring second language learners to a level of
language competency while accommodating language instructors working
with limited resources and time.” (
http://www.nsilc.org/About%20the%20workshop.htm)
Arapaho language saw a great revitalization combined with a pop
culture twist when in 1993 Bambi Spoke Arapaho was released on vhs
(Greymorning, 2001). Despite the fact that Professor Greymorning failed
to get other movies dubbed into Arapaho, the language continues to grow
as speakers are emerging in the new generations both in Arapaho
populations and in others that teach and work with Arapaho
students/academics.
Napier (2000) advocates community and higher
educational partnerships to ensure Native school success. Cherrington
(2000) advocates a child-centered model which is the basis for Maori
educational practices. This child-centered model seems to be successful
for Native students as they are used to a different type of learning in
traditional family environments..
Cultural Heritage
and Understanding of One’s History is a Strong Indicator of long-term
success. For Native Peoples language, spirituality and culture are
intrinsically connected. Reyhner (2006) and Yazzie-Mintz,
T. (2008) explored of the role of ceremony, culture and language in
academic success. Friesen and Friesen (2005) are specifically looking at
contemporary Native Canadian educational issues; the preferred term for
Native people in Canada is “First Nations.” The key points that Friesen
and Friesen look at are the role of Native spirituality, language near
reservations and curriculum. Friesen and Friesen are very prejudiced in
their views. Frequently promoting the educational investments and
achievements of white missionaries and degrading the views of tribal
elders on such topics as language and culture. Therein lies a
significant danger for Euroamerican authors discussing Native
educational issues. It is danger of internatilization of colonialism and
that can be transferred to academic writing on the subject. This leads
the pertinent notes on the subject that the authors make (the trifold
keys to successful Native education: language, spirituality and
academics) being hidden under their repugnant support for white
educators during the educational era of government-approved cultural
genocide.
It is through knowing where we have come, that we best
know where we are going. It is context that plays an important role in
the education process. “Cleary and Peacock’s (1998) example of Wayne
Newell, the Native American teacher, is presented as an example of
someone who has survived in the world that exists and simultaneously is
engaged in transforming it as a Pasmaquoddy language teacher assisting
his predominately Pasmaquoddy students in following a similar path to
higher education, and thus is surviving in the world that exists.
Newell’s work as a language teacher, in the context of the United States
with its long history of cultural genocide, is in itself
transformative. In other words, teaching Native children their
indigenous culture, if successful, is to change the world that exists
because it would be a beginning in countering the many generations of
cultural loss.” (Malott, 2008, 126)
Cultural Renewal and the new Native Student: pre-k to University
There
are many tribally controlled schools today that serve children of all
ages. Pre-kindergarten students learn Navajo in reservation head-start
programs and college students on Pine Ridge major in Lakota
culture/history. . Yazzie-Mintz (2008) in this collection makes a point
the Native ways of doing things are contemporary and are not some sort
of extinct methodology/philosophy. She writes “our work as educators, in
the here and now is to create opportunities for the cultures of our
people to be generated and renewed.” (p. 18) Native culture is not
something that is solitarily part of the past and this point is
important to delineating the “why” to this kind of bibliography. It is
the very contemporary nature of this research that makes it so relevant.
With sources, we are specifically looking at the last 15 years, with
some exceptions made for seminal works done in the last twenty-five
years. An Okanagan, Armstrong (2000) brings us again to the holistic
methodologies that are key to Native student success and integrates
Native culture and art into these processes. Gollnick (2000) delineates
“The Turtle school at Oneida is a unique, tribally developed BIA grant
school that promotes community and cultural values. The teachers,
administrators, and community members have worked hard to incorporate
Oneida life ways into the environment, structure and ways of learning
and teaching at the school.” (p.102).
The role of Tribal Colleges & Universities in cultural renewal is a significant one.
Huffman
(2008) did significant research into American Indian students at
non-Indian colleges and Universities. He writes “Native students need to
see early in their academic pursuits that they have the right and the
means to retain their cultural autonomy.” (p. 200). Huffman also argues
for culturally sensitive counseling and academic support.
As
previously discussed Navajo/Dine language and education are closely ted
and significantly successful. The success of charter schools in bucking
tradition, engaging in cultural content and making transformative
education possible is more than a meaningful side note. The majority of
Native schools are public schools from Fort Defiance Elementary in
Arizona to American Indian High School in Oakland, CA. Charter schools
are allowed freedom. Fort Defiance elementary for example totally
immersed children in Navajo language until second grade (Arviso &
Holm, 2001, 210)
Ethnoscience, Native Arts and
Ethnomathematics: Can we defeat Eurocentricism and teach integrate
Native views into these subjects? Srivastava (1997) looks at
the integration of Native cultural beliefs and philosophies into science
curricula. “Courses in physics, chemistry, biology, environmental
science and technology seem much more amenable to cultural integration.
At a higher level, we eventually could incorporate the core of our
tribal values and then remold the curriculum around that foundation…Of
course, if the instructor already knows or learns some of the Native
language, it makes the information more meaningful... It allows the
instructor to use relevant vocabulary.” (Srivastava, 18) Srivastava also
points out how integration of Native beliefs, the land, waters and
college algebra increased student success. These changes are also
applicable to science education at the 6-12 grade level as well although
Srivastava does not make that connection. Price (2010), Guinn (2010),
Crazy Bull (2010), Bowen (2010), Ambler (2010), Olson (2010), and Davis
(2010) integrate science, technology, and engineering into tribally
controlled colleges, specifically topics like ethno botany/taxonomy,
STEM programs, and internet technologies into traditional native
communities and campuses like Sitting Bull College, Northwest Indian
College, College of the Menominee Nation and Salish Kootenai College.
No
Child Left Behind plays a role in the way that Native education is
implemented and conducted. Generally speaking, Native schools are public
schools. Faircloth (2008) analyzes the relevance (or disconnect) of
assessment in relation to native education. Beaulieu (2008) relates the
detriment NCLB has made onto schools practicing CBE, as “the reality is
that NCLB has severely abrogated the use of Native language and culture
in schools serving Native students.” (p. 11) Winstead, et al (2008),
Patrick (2008), Reyhner and Hurtado (2008), Cleary (2008), Watanabe
(2008) and Garcia (2008) all look at the relationship and detriment of
NCLB and how the standardized assessments are failing to mesh with the
cultural and language content as taught in Native schools.
Willeto
(1997) explores the difficulties in the late 1970s and early 1980s
incorporating Navajo cultural and religious beliefs and philosophies in a
more holistic way into the curriculum of Diné College rather than as an
additional 9 course units of language, history and culture. It was not
until the mid-1990s and several revisions and input from tribal elders
that the model was finally applied to the school. Dine College’s
philosophy is “Sa’ah Naaghai Bik’eh Hozhoon” which “reflects the living,
natural order of things, including the interaction between earth and
other celestial bodies.”(pp. 12) As opposed to Western education which
sees itself as an observer of nature at best or at worst a controlling
force, Navajos respect their own position as part of the natural order,
thus creating a very different paradigm within the natural order. This
article also underscores how the change from the traditionally western
educational model to a more Native-centered approach took decades rather
than occurring overnight. Fenelon and LeBeau (2006) explore “the
objective of, and rationale behind, developing multicultural curricula
sensitive to and inclusive of local, indigenous cultures as well as most
mainstream Anglo cultural patterns.” (p. 21) Fenelon and LeBeau compare
and contrast Northern Plains Indians learning/teaching models with
traditional “Western” methodologies and pedagogical theory. There are
still a variety of issues that need to be addressed What are the
differences between Reservation versus non-Reservation settings? And can
these theories be applied in mixed-race classrooms? Indeed is it even
possible to integrate Native languages into the classroom in non-Native
settings? It would be amazing to see Ohlone taught in San Francisco
classrooms, and Wintun in Vallejo but is that a realistic possibility?
Until the modern public education context values indigenous language
and culture then there is not likely to be the paradigm shift wherein
Native culture is more than a passing note in fourth grade Californian
classrooms.
The strong contemporary programs that are
integrating the three keys to Native success are overcoming the
historical failure of Native educational programs. While individual
programs may have positive and negative attributes, the movement overall
to bring together Native language, culture and the “Western”
reading-writing-arithmetic model can only be said to promote Native
student’s self-esteem, self-worth and thus triumph. The very diversity
of these tribally specific and pan-Indian programs is testament to their
import in Native education today. There is a distinct possibility that
successful programs like those at the Ojibwe’s Circle of Life School,
Dr. Greymorning’s Arapaho program at the University of Montana and
elsewhere will spread. Schools with high numbers of Native students need
to work to meet their needs. It is clear from the research that
students from Native American backgrounds do better educationally
speaking when there is an integration of language and thus
spiritual/traditional tribal values into the classroom. Students do not
flourish without this incorporation so that students can exist as Malott
(2008) states in the world that is, as well as the world that ought to
be. Recovering from the cultural genocide of the boarding school era is
no insignificant task, however the amazing gains by emergent
educational programs show that success can be made. Previous educational
models had little expectation for success of Native students. The
twenty-first century shows that there are sincere possibilities for
success, for revitalization of traditional values, for strength in
tribal spiritual beliefs as well as post-secondary academic achievements
for the next generation of Native students.
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