The Complexity of Native Education in the United States

            Historically, Native peoples have been forced to adapt themselves to Western academic paradigms if they wish to become a success in the mainstream culture. In 1892, Captain Richard Pratt wrote “Kill the Indian in him, and save the man” in relation to the education of Native peoples of the United States and this hardened and Eurocentric disposition of education has been applied to the majority of Native education programs between then and now (http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/4929/). However, in the last few decades, a great increase has been seen in programs that support student success through a reinfusion of Native culture and language. Those outside the field are often without a background or understanding of those topics central to Native American educational curriculum or even the wide variety of programs that exist at the k-12 and university level to support academically, socially and culturally Native Students. The integration of native languages and tribal-specific spiritual/cultural contexts with traditionally Western academic disciplines in both contemporary k-12 and university/college level Native American education creates the necessary foundations and support that Native American students need to both be successful in their lives within Western cultural norms while remaining grounded in their culture and gaining a stronger connection with their ancestors and cultural practices.
            The methodology used in these educational settings differs perforce because of the relative ages and levels of experience and maturity of the students involved. It is a complicated process to bring Native language and culture into the academy where English and Eurocentric ideals have reigned supreme for centuries, however many contemporary programs are doing just that and therefore promoting the personal, professional and academic success of their students. “Many schools around the country are now involved in the teaching of local endangered languages. There are three main types of school-based language programs: teaching an endangered language as a subject (like a foreign language) {which is the most common}, bilingual education {a better tool for language maintenance rather than revitalization as well as a hot political issue}, and full-scale immersion…Language and culture are closely intertwined.. One important reason many people want to learn their ancestral language is that they want to regain access to traditional cultural practices and traditional values. IT is often said that language is the key to and the heart of culture.” (Hinton, 2001a, 7-9). This research will explore some of the programs that are existent today, specifically exploring pedagogical theory, methodology and keys to a successful program both on the Reservation and in other settings. They specifically provide students with the pedagogical and philosophical tools to more effectively function in an increasingly multi-cultural and global society. Locust (1988) writes “the dominant culture’s lack of understanding of the tribal concept that the unity of a group is binding also leads to discrimination against Indian people…Belief systems are the framework upon which all cultures and societies function. It is the bond that holds civilizations together, and it is the small voice inside each of us that urges us to be true to what we have been taught…We remain positive that, once understanding has been established between tribal cultures and educational systems, discrimination will cease.” (p. 19-20). Deyhle (1995) found that Navajo students felt conflicted about the role of education and that it could not be integrated with traditional ceremonial/religious practices nor filial responsibilities.
            In the last few decades, a great increase has been seen in programs that support student success through a reinfusion of Native culture and language. While pioneering programs such as those at Rough Rock and Fort Defiance existed as an offshoot of the Red Power and self-determination movement it wasn’t until the last couple decades where there was a significant change in the dominant system’s interaction with Native Education. Arnold (2001) cites the major influence of the Native American Languages Act of 1990, in which “Provisions of the act were intended to recognize the right of tribes to use their languages as a medium of instruction, to encourage state and local education authorities to implement the act by including Native American languages in their curricula, to grant appropriate credit (including substitution of a Native American language for a foreign language) and to allow exceptions to teacher certification requirements for Native American Language teachers.” (p.45) This legal precedent opened the door to significant possibility for change in the field of Native American education.
Those outside the field are often without a background or understanding of those topics central to Native American educational curriculum or even the wide variety of programs that exist at the k-12 and university level to support academically, socially and culturally Native Students. The integration of native languages and tribal-specific spiritual/cultural contexts with traditionally Western academic disciplines in both contemporary k-12 and university/college level Native American education creates the necessary foundations and support that Native American students need to both be successful in their lives within Western cultural norms while remaining grounded in their culture and gaining a stronger connection with their ancestors and cultural practices, although the methodology used in these educational settings differs perforce because of the relative ages and levels of experience and maturity of the students involved. It is a complicated process to bring in Native language and culture into the academy where English and Eurocentric ideals have reigned supreme for centuries, however many contemporary programs are doing just that and therefore promoting the personal, professional and academic success of their students. This research will explore some of the programs that are existent today specifically exploring pedagogical theory, methodology and keys to a successful program both on the Reservation and in other settings. This bibliographic essay is the beginning of a journey in exploring contemporary Native American Education programs that establish the new triumvirate of Native student success: language, culture/spirituality and academics. Today, the majority of Native peoples live off the reservation. However, this essay will look at educational programs both on and off the reservation to ensure that a broad spectrum of contemporary Native Education programs will be explored.
            In previous decades, my thesis would have been much harder to write as most of the resources focused on forcing Native students into a traditional Euro-American ethnocentric educational model. Gregory Cajete (1994) is a pioneer in the field of integrating indigenous science, methodologies and beliefs with fields traditionally considered Western and he wrote that "In its most natural dimension, all true education is transformative and Nature centered." This is the key to creating Native Education programs, obtaining this natural dimension. Cajete’s Look to the Mountain: An Ecology of Indigenous Education is truly a seminal text in this field. Ambler (1997) writes “The concept of American Indian cultural curriculum emerged not out of educational fads or efforts to be politically correct. It was inspired by the failure of educational institutions to successfully educate American Indian children. Alarming dropout statistics demonstrate the mainstream educational system’s inability by academic standards to educate Indian people. Often those who succeed in mainstream institutions are considered failures by their own cultural standards.” (pp.8) Here in 1997, Ambler is arguing for the necessity and purpose of tribal colleges to educate Native students and the ways in which Indian people must prioritize their funding, curriculum and community-impact. Education for Native people by Native people and reflecting Native values is key to student success. “Cultural curriculum helps students not only survive, but thrive.” (Ambler, 10). Huffman (2010) gives a significant look at the theories upon which Native education are based, specifically CBE (Culturally-Based Education) and transculturation theory. Transculturation theory is specific to Native education as it is not applied to other ethnic groups and was specifically developed to explain the relationships between indigenous and immigrant populations in the Americas. Deloria and Wildcat (2001) also give significant insight into the theoretical basis of both Western education as well as the holistic understandings that underpin most Native belief systems and how these critical indigenous understanding are of aid to Native students studying the sciences, mathematics, etc. Deloria and Wildcat (2001) argue for a fundamental return to tribal teaching models and abandoning the Western style educational models that are a failure for teaching Native youth.


Native Languages are being integrated throughout the US at both the k-12 and University level. Pre-kindergarten students learn Navajo in reservation head-start programs and college students on Pine Ridge major in Lakota culture/history. A Blackfoot, Kipp (2000) advocates cooperative, language-based, culturally-informed education. Kipp links language and identity especially for children. Suina (2000) brings together spirituality, symbolism and education in order to create a model that reflects the linguistic and cultural character of Native people. The model Suina describes is tribally specific to his own people: the Conchiti Pueblo. It is important to note that most, if not all successful immersion programs and schools, are tribally-specific. There is no such thing as a pan-Indian k-12.
Schools require a specific cultural context in order to connect with the students. Reyhner (2006) is a leader in Navajo-language/culture-based education. This text looks at the assimilation-based education history of Native American Education, then exploring contemporary programs such as the Rough Rock Demonstration School on the Navajo Reservation which emerged in the 1960s and had a great deal of administrative problems, especially financial. Rock Point Community School, Navajo Community College, the now defunct D-Q University and Oglala Lakota College are also looked at. Programs that offer dual-language immersion and ESL programs on the reservation are analyzed. Reyhner establishes the increased success of experiential learning, group-leadership and motivation within Native American- specifically Navajo communities. Lomawaima and McCarty (2006) also catalog the rise of schools controlled by the tribal-groups. The rise of bilingual/bicultural education is demonstrated with Rough Rock, Rock Point (both Navajo) and Peach Springs (Hualapai) which all emerged in the height of the red power movement, the latter two experienced long-term academic success for their students: a key point of which was the development of tribal-language materials and bilingual methodologies. In addition, Lomawaima and McCarty (2006) state “Hawaiian-language immersion may be the most dramatic success story in the ‘new American revolution’ to date. It is a model that has been emulated by  many indigenous communities in order to reclaim and restore their tribal languages.” (p. 138).Warner (2001) significantly explains the rise of the Hawaiian language/culture-based preschool programs that eventually led to dual Hawaiian/English immersion programs as well as Anuenue, a pre-k-12th grade immersion school. Anuenue’s mission statement is “To empower children by providing them a quality education in both Hawaiian and English based on Hawaiian culture and history to enable them to seek knowledge and excellence and contribute to their community and their lāhui.”(http://www.anuenue.org/keena.html) . Keahi (2000) prioritizes indigenous children’s self-esteem which she articulates is increased through cultural and language immersion. The University of Hawaii now houses a Hawaiian language college, offering the “first graduate degree for an indigenous language anywhere in the nation.” (p.59). This program also offers Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.d.) in Hawaiian and Indigenous Language and Cultural Revitalization. “The mission of the Ph.D. program in Hawaiian and Indigenous Language and Culture Revitalization is to train well rounded Hawaiian and other indigenous scholars who are prepared to take leadership roles within their communities in indigenous language and culture revitalization.” (http://www.olelo.hawaii.edu/khuok/laeula.php). Silva (2000) catalogs the rise of interest in Hawaiian language and culture from the 1970s to today, establishing the increase interest and community value placed on Hawaiian culture. Hawai’i is clearly a leader in indigenous education.
Culturally-based education is not limited to Hawai’i; nor are its successes. “The Circle of Life School was created in 1978 when twelve Ojibwe students walked out of the Waubun High School, about ten miles away, because of the conflict they were experiencing at the public school. The walkout forced their tribal leaders to grapple with educational responsibility. Their first school was a small two-room shack with nothing more than a barrel stove, table, stumps for chairs, and baloney sandwiches, according to Denise (Bellecourte) Levy, a leader of the twelve who walked out. The Waubun coordinator walked out with them and became their first teacher. The tribal council created its own school to "provide a quality, culturally-based education that emphasizes the academic, emotional, social, and spiritual development...in a safe and supportive environment." Levy was the first graduate of the school, enrolled at Bemidji State University, and graduated with a double degree in criminal justice and Indian studies. In recent years, the school has met the rigorous performance goals and indicators of success required by the No Child Left Behind Act. Since 2001, students have made consistent annual improvements at the proficient and advanced levels in reading, math, and attendance.” (Germaine, 2005). Clearly there is a link between the integration of tribal culture and the success of native students. “Tohatchi Elementary School and two Zuni schools, Dowa Yalanne Elementary and Zuni High, were honored … for their strong bilingual  programs, according to a release from New Mexico Secretary of Education Veronica C. Garcia. They are among 32 public schools in which bilingual education has helped English language learner students move toward proficiency in English and to make academic progress.” (Tohatchi, 2010)
Pedagogy and Theoretical Methodology meet Practical Application
Paolo Friere’s Pedagogy of the Oppressed: Does Friere really play a role or is the Contemporary Native Education movement more of an outgrowth of the Red Power movement of the 60s and 70s? It is clear that there is a different type of understanding when we are looking at tribally-specific pedagogy and curricula planning. Friere has been applied to a variety of groups and cultural minorities however. Indigenous pedagogy is a specific result of conquest and cultural genocide. It is meaningful in tribal contexts.  
            Language acquisition theory is an important thing when discussing bilingual education. The critical terminology of course is L1 – primary or first language a student learns and L2 – second or secondary language a student learns. L2’s tend to be English
“The positive view of L1 influences on L2 is represented by the theory of Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP). Cummins (1983) proposes a "dual-iceberg" analogy to describe the transfer of bilingual learners' first language to the second language. In Cummin's model, Ll and L2 proficiencies overlap with the common sector, which is below the "surface". In the separate sectors we find the surface features of the respective linguistic structures of Ll and L2. As the double iceberg indicates, superficially, Ll and L2 are separated proficiencies, but in essence, they overlap and share certain abstract universal principles and constraints common to all natural languages. L2 learners express their language proficiency in two different modes, i.e. the native language and the second language, but skills, knowledge and concepts developed in Ll can be easily transferable to L2. The CUP model claims that there is an underlying cognitive/academic proficiency that is common across languages, which follows the transfer of literacy-related skills across languages.” (Yan, 2010)

L1/L2 Bilingual Education Theory gives Native language instruction a supportable backbone. Academic development must continue in a child’s first language if the desire is high ability, comprehension and academic skill in their second language. Although, some Native children are sent to school speaking only English due to parental lack of Native language fluency.
            Many schools, especially those on reservations or near them, offer tribal languages as a subject in the school, just like English or mathematics. Some schools are more daring and offer tribal language immersion programs wherein all the subjects are taught in a student’s tribal language.
As evidenced by the strong advocacy for Dine language and culture in the schools, there currently is a Navajo language Head Start and immersion at Eva B. Stokely Elementary where kindergarteners began their first immersion program in Fall 2010. (http://www.linguapax.org/fr/nouvelles/2011/02/11/district-offers-first-navajo-immersion-program) As one of the larger reservations, the Navajo have a strong sense of culture and a value on language. In addition, the Navajo have managed to integrate their culture into contemporary cultural contexts, for example the Miss Navajo Competition (http://www.missnavajocouncil.org/history/pageanthistory.htm) as well as having traditional Navajo family portrayed fairly well on Morgan Spurlock’s 30 Days television show (year). Despite the decreased in funding in public and thus Native education since the 1990s (Malott, 2008), Dine language and culture in the schools is growing and expanding. 
Significant work has been done in regards to Arapaho language revitalization, particularly by Dr. Neyooxet Greymorning. “ The teacher-training workshop will guide language instructors through a method called Accelerated Second Language Acquisition©™. This method has broad application as a tool for language instruction across diverse languages and age groups.  The applicability of this method for application and instruction for an unlimited number of languages is seamless. Participants will receive training in its use through hands on demonstrations, step-by-step explanations that will guide participants in how to use this approach, and with video footage of work with children, and adult college classes. Dr. Greymorning developed this approach to specifically bring second language learners to a level of language competency while accommodating language instructors working with limited resources and time.” (http://www.nsilc.org/About%20the%20workshop.htm)  Arapaho language saw a  great revitalization combined with a pop culture twist when in 1993 Bambi Spoke Arapaho was released on vhs (Greymorning, 2001). Despite the fact that Professor Greymorning failed to get other movies dubbed into Arapaho, the language continues to grow as speakers are emerging in the new generations both in Arapaho populations and in others that teach and work with Arapaho students/academics.
Napier (2000) advocates community and higher educational partnerships to ensure Native school success. Cherrington (2000) advocates a child-centered model which is the basis for Maori educational practices. This child-centered model seems to be successful for Native students as they are used to a different type of learning in traditional family environments..
Cultural Heritage and Understanding of One’s History is a Strong Indicator of long-term success. For Native Peoples language, spirituality and culture are intrinsically connected. Reyhner (2006) and Yazzie-Mintz, T. (2008) explored of the role of ceremony, culture and language in academic success. Friesen and Friesen (2005) are specifically looking at contemporary Native Canadian educational issues; the preferred term for Native people in Canada is “First Nations.” The key points that Friesen and Friesen look at are the role of Native spirituality, language near reservations and curriculum. Friesen and Friesen are very prejudiced in their views. Frequently promoting the educational investments and achievements of white missionaries and degrading the views of tribal elders on such topics as language and culture. Therein lies a significant danger for Euroamerican authors discussing Native educational issues. It is danger of internatilization of colonialism and that can be transferred to academic writing on the subject. This leads the pertinent notes on the subject that the authors make (the trifold keys to successful Native education: language, spirituality and academics) being hidden under their repugnant support for white educators during the educational era of government-approved cultural genocide.
It is through knowing where we have come, that we best know where we are going. It is context that plays an important role in the education process. “Cleary and Peacock’s (1998) example of Wayne Newell, the Native American teacher, is presented as an example of someone who has survived in the world that exists and simultaneously  is engaged in transforming it as a Pasmaquoddy language teacher assisting his predominately Pasmaquoddy students in following a similar path to higher education, and thus is surviving in the world that exists. Newell’s work as a language teacher, in the context of the United States with its long history of cultural genocide, is in itself transformative. In other words, teaching Native children their indigenous culture, if successful, is to change the world that exists because it would be a beginning in countering the many generations of cultural loss.” (Malott, 2008, 126)
Cultural Renewal and the new Native Student:  pre-k to University
There are many tribally controlled schools today that serve children of all ages. Pre-kindergarten students learn Navajo in reservation head-start programs and college students on Pine Ridge major in Lakota culture/history. . Yazzie-Mintz (2008) in this collection makes a point the Native ways  of doing things are contemporary and are not some sort of extinct methodology/philosophy. She writes “our work as educators, in the here and now is to create opportunities for the cultures of our people to be generated and renewed.” (p. 18) Native culture is not something that is solitarily part of the past and this point is important to delineating the “why” to this kind of bibliography. It is the very contemporary nature of this research that makes it so relevant. With sources, we are specifically looking at the last 15 years, with some exceptions made for seminal works done in the last twenty-five years. An Okanagan, Armstrong (2000) brings us again to the holistic methodologies that are key to Native student success and integrates Native culture and art into these processes. Gollnick (2000) delineates “The Turtle school at Oneida is a unique, tribally developed BIA grant school that promotes community and cultural values. The teachers, administrators, and community members have worked hard to incorporate Oneida life ways into the environment, structure and ways of learning and teaching at the school.” (p.102).
The role of Tribal Colleges & Universities in cultural renewal is a significant one.
Huffman (2008) did significant research into American Indian students at non-Indian colleges and Universities. He writes “Native students need to see early in their academic pursuits that they have the right and the means to retain their cultural autonomy.” (p. 200). Huffman also argues for culturally sensitive counseling and academic support.
            As previously discussed Navajo/Dine language and education are closely ted and significantly successful. The success of charter schools in bucking tradition, engaging in cultural content and making transformative education possible is more than a meaningful side note. The majority of Native schools are public schools from Fort Defiance Elementary in Arizona to American Indian High School in Oakland, CA. Charter schools are allowed freedom. Fort Defiance elementary for example totally immersed children in Navajo language until second grade (Arviso & Holm, 2001, 210)
Ethnoscience, Native Arts and Ethnomathematics: Can we defeat Eurocentricism and teach integrate Native views into these subjects? Srivastava (1997) looks at the integration of Native cultural beliefs and philosophies into science curricula. “Courses in physics, chemistry, biology, environmental science and technology seem much more amenable to cultural integration. At a higher level, we eventually could incorporate the core of our tribal values and then remold the curriculum around that foundation…Of course, if the instructor already knows or learns some of the Native language, it makes the information more meaningful... It allows the instructor to use relevant vocabulary.” (Srivastava, 18) Srivastava also points out how integration of Native beliefs, the land, waters and college algebra increased student success. These changes are also applicable to science education at the 6-12 grade level as well although Srivastava does not make that connection. Price (2010), Guinn (2010), Crazy Bull (2010), Bowen (2010), Ambler (2010), Olson (2010), and Davis (2010) integrate science, technology, and engineering into tribally controlled colleges, specifically topics like ethno botany/taxonomy, STEM programs, and internet technologies into traditional native communities and campuses like Sitting  Bull College, Northwest Indian College, College of the Menominee Nation and Salish Kootenai College.
No Child Left Behind plays a role in the way that Native education is implemented and conducted. Generally speaking, Native schools are public schools. Faircloth (2008) analyzes the relevance (or disconnect) of assessment in relation to native education.  Beaulieu (2008) relates the detriment NCLB has made onto schools practicing CBE, as “the reality is that NCLB has severely abrogated the use of Native language and culture in schools serving Native students.” (p. 11) Winstead, et al (2008), Patrick (2008), Reyhner and Hurtado (2008), Cleary (2008), Watanabe (2008) and Garcia (2008) all look at the relationship and detriment of NCLB and how the standardized assessments are failing to mesh with the cultural and language content as taught in Native schools.
Willeto (1997) explores the difficulties in the late 1970s and early 1980s incorporating Navajo cultural and religious beliefs and philosophies in a more holistic way into the curriculum of Diné College rather than as an additional 9 course units of language, history and culture. It was not until the mid-1990s and several revisions and input from tribal elders that the model was finally applied to the school.  Dine College’s philosophy is “Sa’ah Naaghai Bik’eh Hozhoon” which “reflects the living, natural order of things, including the interaction between earth and other celestial bodies.”(pp. 12) As opposed to Western education which sees itself as an observer of nature at best or at worst a controlling force, Navajos respect their own position as part of the natural order, thus creating a very different paradigm within the natural order. This article also underscores how the change from the traditionally western educational model to a more Native-centered approach took decades rather than occurring overnight. Fenelon and LeBeau (2006) explore “the objective of, and rationale behind, developing multicultural curricula sensitive to and inclusive of local, indigenous cultures as well as most mainstream Anglo cultural patterns.” (p. 21) Fenelon and LeBeau compare and contrast Northern Plains Indians learning/teaching models with traditional “Western” methodologies and pedagogical theory. There are still a variety of issues that need to be addressed What are the differences between Reservation versus non-Reservation settings? And can these theories be applied in mixed-race classrooms? Indeed is it even possible to integrate Native languages into the classroom in non-Native settings? It would be amazing to see Ohlone taught in San Francisco classrooms, and Wintun in Vallejo but is that a realistic possibility? Until the modern public education context values indigenous language  and culture then there is not likely to be the paradigm shift wherein Native culture is more than a passing note in fourth grade Californian classrooms.          
The strong contemporary programs that are integrating the three keys to Native success are overcoming the historical failure of Native educational programs. While individual programs may have positive and negative attributes, the movement overall to bring together Native language, culture and the “Western” reading-writing-arithmetic model can only be said to promote Native student’s self-esteem, self-worth and thus triumph. The very diversity of these tribally specific and pan-Indian programs is testament to their import in Native education today. There is a distinct possibility that successful programs like those at the Ojibwe’s Circle of Life School, Dr. Greymorning’s Arapaho program at the University of Montana and elsewhere will spread. Schools with high numbers of Native students need to work to meet their needs. It is clear from the research that students from Native American backgrounds do better educationally speaking when there is an integration of language and thus spiritual/traditional tribal values into the classroom. Students do not flourish without this incorporation so that students can exist as Malott (2008) states in the world that is, as well as the world that ought to be.  Recovering from the cultural genocide of the boarding school era is no insignificant task, however the amazing gains by emergent educational programs show that success can be made. Previous educational models had little expectation for success of Native students. The twenty-first century shows that there are sincere possibilities for success, for revitalization of traditional values, for strength in tribal spiritual beliefs as well as post-secondary academic achievements for the next generation of Native students.














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